Sulfate-Resistant Portland Cement Clinker Based on the Raw Material Base of Karakalpakstan: Technology, Economics and Ecology

G.B. Begzhanova; D.D. Mukhitdinov; A.Sh. Ruzmetova; T. Shengwen; Z.R. Tursunov; I.I. Tojiev

doi:10.31643/2028/6445.23

Authors

G.B. Begzhanova Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry of the Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan
D.D. Mukhitdinov Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry of the Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan
A.Sh. Ruzmetova Urgench State University named after Abu Rayhon Beruni
T. Shengwen Wuhan University
Z.R. Tursunov Navoi State University of Mining and Technology
I.I. Tojiev Bukhara State Technical University

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.31643/2028/6445.23

Keywords:

sulfate-resistant Portland cement, clinker synthesis, mineral resources, sulfate resistance, green economy, sustainability.

Abstract

This study is devoted to the production of sulfate-resistant Portland cement clinker based on local raw materials found in the Aral Sea region of the Republic of Uzbekistan and the study of its properties. The results obtained highlight technological, economic, and environmental advantages. The raw material mixtures consisted of limestone, barren sand, kaolin, and iron-rich industrial waste, resulting in a clinker with an optimized oxide composition (LSF = 0.82, SR = 2.15, AR = 0.94). X-ray phase analysis shows a high content of alite (C₃S ≈ 38.6%) and belite (C₂S ≈ 41.0%) phases, which provides high mechanical strength. The low content of tricalcium aluminate (tricalcium aluminate < 5%) and the sufficient content of ferrite (C₄AF ≈ 16.2%) increased sulfate resistance and phase dominance. Sulfate resistance tests performed in accordance with ASTM C1012/C1012M showed that sulfate-resistant Portland cement had the lowest swelling index among samples placed in a 5% Na₂SO₄ solution, proving its high resistance compared to ordinary Portland cement and mixed cement types. The results of the experiments prove the feasibility of producing high-quality sulfate-resistant Portland cement clinker based on local raw materials and demonstrate its potential for use in the sulfate-rich conditions of the Aral Sea region. Economically, the use of local raw materials reduces production costs, the need for imports, and increases the competitiveness of the cement industry in our region. Ecologically, the long service life of sulfate-resistant Portland cement and the possibility of using industrial waste are consistent with the principles of the "green economy" and contribute to waste reduction and sustainable growth.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Author Biographies

G.B. Begzhanova, Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry of the Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan

Doctor of Technical Sciences, Chief Scientific Researcher at the STROM Research Laboratory and Testing Center of the Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry of the Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan, 100170, 77 Mirzo Ulugbek Street, Tashkent, Uzbekistan. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0492-3246

D.D. Mukhitdinov, Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry of the Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan

Doctor of Technical Sciences, STROM Research Laboratory and Testing Center, Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan, Tashkent, Uzbekistan. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4795-6080

A.Sh. Ruzmetova, Urgench State University named after Abu Rayhon Beruni

Doctor of Philosophy in Technical Sciences (PhD), Associate Professor of the Department of Chemical Technologies, Urgench State University, Urgench, Uzbekistan. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0009-0004-1008-4057

T. Shengwen, Wuhan University

Wuhan University, China. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6635-9444

Z.R. Tursunov, Navoi State University of Mining and Technology

Doctor of Philosophy in Technical Sciences, Associate Professor, Navoi State University of Mining and Technology, 210100, 76v Galaba Avenue, Navoiy, Uzbekistan. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0009-0003-6432-4442

I.I. Tojiev, Bukhara State Technical University

Doctor of Technical Sciences, Head of the Department of Civil Engineering, Bukhara State Technical University, Bukhara, Uzbekistan. Scopus ID: 57552794300

References

Al-Amoudi OSB. Attack on plain and blended cements exposed to aggressive sulfate environments. Cement and Concrete Composites. 2002; 24(3–4):305–316.

Mehta PK, & Monteiro PJM. Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill, New York. 2014, 704.

Lothenbach B, Matschei T, Möschner G, & Glasser FP. Thermodynamic modelling of the effect of temperature on the hydration and porosity of Portland cement. Cement and Concrete Research. 2008; 38(1):1–18.

Shao Y, Chen X, & Li W. Study on the preparation and sulfate resistance of Portland cement clinker with the high Fe/Al ratio of ferrite phase. Cement and Concrete Composites. 2022; 134:104699. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2022.104699

Labidi I. Optimization of sulfate resistant Portland cement raw mixes. Journal of Building Materials and Structures. 2017; 4(1):53–61.

Labidi I, Megriche A, & Benazzouk S. Natural resources exploitation in sulfate-resisting Portland cement manufacturing. Frontiers in Chemistry. 2022; 10:806433. https://doi.org/10.3389/fchem.2022.806433

Khalifa SA, & AlSadig DY. Adjustment of clinker raw mix design to produce sulfate resisting cement. International Journal of Trend in Research and Development. 2017; 4(5):187–193.

Costa ARD, Figueiredo M, & Canda L. Thermodynamic modelling of the clinkering process in sulfate resistant cements. Scientific Reports. 2023; 13:16542. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-44078-7

Santhanam K, Cohen MD, & Olek J. Mechanism of sulfate attack: Part I. Experimental study. Cement and Concrete Research. 2002; 32(6):915–921. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(02)00724-X

Santhanam K, Cohen MD, & Olek J. Mechanism of sulfate attack: Part II. Numerical simulation. Cement and Concrete Research. 2003; 33(3):341–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(02)00925-6

Whittaker M, Black J, & Jones S. A review of external sulfate attack in concrete. Advances in Cement Research. 2015; 27(9):519–529. https://doi.org/10.1680/adcr.14.00089

González MA, Ros F, & Blanco MT. The effect of limestone filler on the sulfate resistance of low C₃A Portland cements. Cement and Concrete Research. 1998; 28(11):1653–1667. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(98)00144-1

Higgins DD. The use of ground granulated blastfurnace slag to improve the sulfate resistance of concrete. Cement and Concrete Composites. 2003; 25(8):913–919. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0958-9465(03)00148-3

Abubaker F. Long-term durability of concrete in sulfate environment: Role of sulfate resisting Portland cement. Construction and Building Materials. 2014; 72:272–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.10.079

Martínez Infante MA, Rosales J, & Morón MA. Sulfate-resistant clinker based cement with new secondary main constituents: Technical, economic and environmental assessment. Buildings. 2025; 15(3):479. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15030479

Tiburzi NB, Le Saout P, & Damidot D. Performance of portland-limestone cements with supplementary cementitious materials in sulfate exposure. Construction and Building Materials. 2019; 220:187–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.06.009

Neto R, Cincotto A, & Fernandes L. Influence of sulfates on the hydration and durability of Portland cement systems. Construction and Building Materials. 2021; 302:122188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.122188

Tursunova G, Atabaev F, Begzhanova G, Khomidov F, Wang L, Matmuratov A, & Khadzhiev A. Thermal activation of Karakalpakstan margels and pozzolan properties in their low-carbon composite Portland cement. Journal of Ecological Engineering. 2026; 27(7).

Khadzhiev A, Atabaev F, & Tursunova G. Influence of sandstone on physical and chemical processes of interaction of components and genetic formation of cement composite. E3S Web of Conferences. 2024; 563:02027. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202456302027

Iskandarova MI, Atabaev FB, Yakubzhanova ZB, Kahhorov U, Hadjiev ASh. Development of Technology for Obtaining Portland Cement with New Types of Composite Additives. AIP Conference Proceedings. 2022; 2432:050063 https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0090576

Iskandarova M, Atabaev F, Tursunova G, Tursunov Z, Khadzhiev A. Composite Portland cements: Innovations and future directions in cement technology. Innovative Infrastructure Solutions. 2025. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41062-025-02067-x

Iskandarova MI, Atabaev FB, Khadzhiev AS. Utilization of natural silicate rocks to reduce the carbon footprint in the cement industry. Kompleksnoe Ispolzovanie Mineralnogo Syra = Complex Use of Mineral Resources. 2026; 338(3):40–50. https://doi.org/10.31643/2026/6445.27

Khadzhiev A, Abdullaev M, Yakubov Y, Jumaniyozov J. The effect of hybrid mineral additives on the genetic formation and physico-chemical processes of cement composites. E3S Web of Conferences. 2025; 633:08003. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202563308003

Atabaev FB, Aripova MKh, Khadzhiev ASh, Tursunova GR, Tursunov ZR. Effect of multicomponent mineral additives on the microstructure and strength of composite cement. Kompleksnoe Ispolzovanie Mineralnogo Syra = Complex Use of Mineral Resources. 2025; 1(322):45–57. https://doi.org/10.31643/2027/6445.05

Khadzhiev A, & Atabaev F. Influence of silica-containing additives on physical and mechanical properties of Portland Cement Co. Ltd Karakalpaksement. E3S Web of Conferences. 2023; 401:05051. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202340105051

Buriev AI, Iskandarova MI, & Begzhanova GB. Influence of a high degree of filling on the properties of pozzolanic cement. RA Journal of Applied Research. 2023; 9(2):60–65. https://doi.org/10.47191/rajar/v9i2.02

Bagdaulet B, & Aitkulov N. Application of regional mineral resources for the synthesis of sulfate resisting cements. Kompleksnoe Ispolzovanie Mineralnogo Syra = Complex Use of Mineral Resources. 2023; 4:33–42. https://doi.org/10.31643/2023/6445.18

Habert G, et al. Cement production technology improvement compared to factor 4 objectives: can we reach individually based targets? Journal of Cleaner Production. 2011; 17(12):1179–1187.

Lotfi S, et al. Circular economy as a strategy for sustainable development of the cement industry. Construction and Building Materials. 2020; 255:119397.

O‘zM St 337:2024. Sulfatga chidamli portlandsement. Texnik shartlar [Sulfate-resistant Portland cement. Technical conditions]. Uzbekistan National Standard. 2024. (in Uzbek).

GOST 22266-2013. Sulfatstoykiy portlandtsement i shlakoportlandtsement. Tekhnicheskiye usloviya [Sulfate-resistant Portland cement and slag Portland cement. Technical conditions]. Mezhgosudarstvennyy standart. 2013. (in Russ.). https://meganorm.ru/Data/592/59275.pdf

ASTM International. ASTM C1012/C1012M–24: Standard Test Method for Length Change of Hydraulic-Cement Mortars Exposed to a Sulfate Solution. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International. 2024. https://www.astm.org/c1012_c1012m-24.html